Cross-Cultural Differences in Food Preferences and Consumption Patterns

Purpose: This study sought to explore cross-cultural differences in food preferences and consumption patterns. Methodology: The study adopted a desktop research methodology. Desk research refers to secondary data or that which can be collected without fieldwork. Desk research is basically involved in collecting data from existing resources hence it is often considered a low cost technique as compared to field research, as the main cost is involved in executive’s time, telephone charges and directories. Thus, the study relied on already published studies, reports and statistics. This secondary data was easily accessed through the online journals and library. Findings: The findings reveal that there exists a contextual and methodological gap relating to cross-cultural differences in food preferences and consumption patterns. Preliminary empirical review revealed that cultural heritage profoundly influenced individuals' food preferences and consumption habits, with distinct culinary traditions and family influences shaping dietary behaviors within specific cultural contexts. Globalization and urbanization were found to impact food preferences, yet traditional dietary practices remained resilient. Additionally, socio-economic factors significantly influenced dietary behaviors, particularly in low-income communities. These findings emphasized the importance of recognizing cultural diversity and socio-economic disparities in promoting healthy eating behaviors and improving public health outcomes.


INTRODUCTION
Food preferences and consumption patterns vary significantly across cultures, influenced by factors such as geography, history, socioeconomic status, and cultural traditions.In the United States, food preferences reflect the country's diverse population and cultural influences.Fast food, such as burgers and fries, remains popular, with statistics showing that 37% of Americans consume fast food on any given day (Fryar, Hughes, Herrick, Ahluwalia & Ogden, 2020).However, there has been a growing interest in health-conscious eating, leading to increased consumption of organic and plant-based foods.According to the Organic Trade Association, organic food sales in the U.S. reached $50.1 billion in 2019, marking an 8.4% increase from the previous year (Organic Trade Association, 2020).Additionally, there is a rising trend in sustainable food consumption, with more Americans opting for locally sourced and ethically produced foods to reduce their environmental impact (Hartmann, Siegrist & Van der Horst, 2013).
In the United Kingdom, traditional dishes like fish and chips, roast dinners, and English breakfasts continue to hold cultural significance.However, there has been a notable shift towards healthier eating habits in recent years.The British Nutrition Foundation reported that in 2018, 61% of adults in the UK claimed to have made changes to their diet for health reasons, with an emphasis on reducing sugar and fat intake (British Nutrition Foundation, 2018).There is also a growing interest in vegetarianism and veganism, with statistics indicating that the number of vegans in the UK quadrupled between 2014 and 2019 (The Vegan Society, 2019).This shift towards plant-based diets is driven by concerns about animal welfare, environmental sustainability, and health consciousness (Hartmann et al., 2013).
In Japan, traditional Japanese cuisine, known as washoku, continues to play a central role in food preferences and consumption patterns.Washoku emphasizes seasonal ingredients, meticulous preparation, and aesthetic presentation.However, Western influences have led to the integration of fast food and convenience items into the Japanese diet.According to a report by Euromonitor International, sales of convenience store food in Japan reached $98 billion in 2019, with ready-to-eat meals and snacks becoming increasingly popular among busy urban dwellers (Euromonitor International, 2020).Despite this shift, traditional Japanese foods like sushi, sashimi, and miso soup remain staples in Japanese households, reflecting a balance between tradition and modernity.
In Brazil, food preferences are heavily influenced by the country's rich culinary heritage, which is characterized by a diverse array of flavors, ingredients, and cooking techniques.Brazilian cuisine reflects a fusion of indigenous, European, African, and Asian influences, resulting in dishes such as feijoada (a hearty bean stew), churrasco (barbecue), and açaí bowls.However, urbanization and globalization have led to changes in dietary habits, with processed foods and sugary beverages becoming more prevalent.According to data from the Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics, the consumption of ultra-processed foods in Brazil increased by 20.5% between 2002 and 2013, contributing to concerns about rising rates of obesity and diet-related diseases (Louzada, da, Martins, Canella, Baraldi, Levy, Claro & Monteiro, 2015).Despite these challenges, there is a growing movement towards healthier eating, with increased awareness of the importance of fresh, locally sourced foods (Hartmann et al., 2013).
In African countries, food preferences and consumption patterns vary widely depending on factors such as geographical location, cultural traditions, and economic development.Traditional African diets are often based on staple foods like grains, tubers, and legumes, supplemented with locally available fruits, vegetables, and meats.However, urbanization and globalization have led to changes in dietary habits, with increased consumption of processed foods and imported goods.According to a study published in the International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, the consumption of ultra-processed foods is on the rise in African countries, particularly among urban populations (Abrahams, Mchiza, Steyn & Dietician, 2017).This shift towards a more Westernized diet has raised concerns about the loss of traditional culinary knowledge and its impact on health and nutrition outcomes (Hartmann et al., 2013).Food preferences and consumption patterns are shaped by a complex interplay of cultural, social, economic, and environmental factors.While traditional foods continue to hold cultural significance in many countries, globalization and modernization have led to changes in dietary habits, with increased consumption of processed foods and convenience items.However, there is also a growing awareness of the importance of health-conscious eating and sustainable food practices, driving trends towards organic, plant-based, and locally sourced foods.Understanding these dynamics is essential for promoting healthy and sustainable diets worldwide.
Cultural background is a multifaceted concept that encompasses a wide array of factors contributing to an individual's identity, beliefs, behaviors, and traditions within a specific cultural context.These factors include but are not limited to nationality, ethnicity, language, religion, socioeconomic status, historical heritage, and geographic location (Napier, Ancarno, Butler, Calabrese, Chater, Chatterjee, Guesnet, Horne, Jacyna, Jain, Kakuma, Mehta, Mishra, Mushtaq, Parikh, Patel, Simon, Thara & Collins, 2014).Nationality, for instance, is not merely a legal status but also a social construct shaping individuals' sense of belonging and cultural identity (Verkuyten & Martinovic, 2017).National identity often influences food preferences and consumption patterns through the promotion of national dishes, culinary festivals, and food-related celebrations.In the United States, for example, the celebration of Thanksgiving revolves around traditional dishes such as roast turkey, mashed potatoes, and pumpkin pie, reflecting the cultural significance of this national holiday (Fitch & Carr, 2015).
Ethnicity is another vital aspect of cultural background, referring to shared cultural traits, ancestry, and heritage among a group of people (Phinney, 2016).Ethnic communities often preserve their culinary traditions through recipes passed down from generation to generation, fostering a sense of cultural identity and belonging.In the United Kingdom, for instance, Indian immigrants have introduced dishes such as curry and samosas, which have become popular and integrated into British cuisine, showcasing the multicultural nature of modern British society (Wilk, 2017).Language also plays a significant role in cultural background, shaping communication, social interaction, and cultural expression (Koven & Zhang, 2013).Language influences food preferences and consumption patterns through the naming and labeling of food items, as well as the transmission of culinary knowledge and recipes within linguistic communities.In Japan, for instance, the term "umami" is used to describe the savory taste sensation found in foods such as miso, soy sauce, and seaweed, highlighting the linguistic nuances of food appreciation (Fujita, 2015).
Moreover, religion is a critical aspect of cultural background, guiding dietary restrictions, food rituals, and culinary practices among adherents (Lynch, 2018).Religious beliefs significantly influence food preferences and consumption patterns through the prohibition or promotion of certain foods and food combinations.For example, adherents of Islam observe halal dietary laws, which prohibit the consumption of pork and alcohol, while emphasizing the consumption of halal-certified meats and abstaining from food during the month of Ramadan (Warde, 2014).Furthermore, socioeconomic status profoundly influences cultural background, determining access to resources, education, and opportunities within a society (Quisumbing, Brown, Feldstein, Haddad & Peña, 2013).Socioeconomic factors shape food preferences and consumption patterns by impacting dietary choices, food affordability, and meal preparation practices.Individuals from higher socioeconomic backgrounds may have access to a wider variety of fresh, organic, and gourmet foods, while those from lower socioeconomic backgrounds may rely more on processed, convenience, and affordable food options (Drewnowski & Specter, 2004).
Additionally, historical heritage plays a crucial role in cultural background, encompassing collective memories, traditions, and narratives of a community or nation (Gamble & Yates, 2018).Historical events, migrations, and cultural exchanges shape culinary traditions and foodways, influencing the ingredients, cooking methods, and flavor profiles of traditional dishes.For instance, in Brazil, the culinary heritage is influenced by indigenous, African, Portuguese, and immigrant cultures, resulting in a rich tapestry of flavors and ingredients in Brazilian cuisine (Laudan, 2013).Geographic location is another factor influencing cultural background, determining access to local resources, climate conditions, and environmental factors (Oakes, 2017).Geographic regions develop distinct food cultures based on their natural surroundings, agricultural practices, and culinary traditions.Coastal regions often have a cuisine centered around seafood, while inland regions may focus more on grains, meats, and dairy products.In Africa, the diversity of landscapes and climates has given rise to a wide variety of traditional foods and cooking techniques across different regions (Nnyepi, Gobotswang & Tacheba, 2013).

Statement of the Problem
The study aims to address the significant gap in understanding how cultural background influences individuals' dietary choices and eating behaviors across diverse populations.Despite the growing globalization and cultural exchange, there remains a lack of comprehensive research examining the nuanced differences in food preferences and consumption patterns among various cultural groups.According to a recent survey conducted by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), 75% of individuals reported that cultural traditions influence their food choices, highlighting the importance of cultural background in shaping dietary behaviors (FAO, 2018).However, existing studies often focus on specific cultural groups or regions, limiting our understanding of broader cross-cultural variations in food preferences and consumption habits (Glanz, Rimer & Viswanath, 2018).
This study seeks to fill the research gap by conducting a comparative analysis of food preferences and consumption patterns among diverse cultural groups, including but not limited to the USA, United Kingdom, Japan, Brazil, and African countries.By examining a wide range of cultural backgrounds, the study aims to identify commonalities and differences in dietary behaviors across different regions and ethnicities.For instance, while previous research may have explored the impact of Westernization on dietary habits in developing countries, this study will provide a more nuanced understanding of how cultural heritage, socioeconomic factors, and globalization intersect to shape individuals' food choices and eating behaviors (Hawkes, Harris & Gillespie, 2017).By addressing these missing research gaps, the study will contribute to the development of culturally sensitive interventions and policies aimed at promoting healthy and sustainable diets worldwide.
The findings of this study will benefit various stakeholders, including policymakers, public health professionals, nutritionists, food industry stakeholders, and consumers.Policymakers can use the insights gained from this study to develop culturally appropriate dietary guidelines and nutrition education programs tailored to the needs of diverse populations.Public health professionals can utilize the findings to design interventions aimed at addressing diet-related health disparities and promoting healthy eating behaviors among culturally diverse communities (Story, Kaphingst, Robinson-O'Brien & Glanz, 2018).Additionally, nutritionists and food industry stakeholders can leverage the findings to develop culturally relevant food products and marketing strategies that resonate with consumers' cultural preferences and values.Overall, the study's findings will contribute to promoting cultural sensitivity, equity, and inclusivity in food and nutrition initiatives, ultimately leading to improved dietary outcomes and well-being for individuals across different cultural backgrounds.

Cultural Anthropology Theory
Cultural anthropology theory, also known as cultural relativism, is a fundamental perspective in anthropology that emphasizes understanding cultural practices and behaviors within their own cultural context, without imposing external judgments or values (Geertz, 1973).Originating from the works of anthropologists such as Franz Boas and Margaret Mead, this theory posits that each culture has its own unique set of beliefs, norms, and values that shape individuals' behaviors and perceptions.In the context of "Cross-Cultural Differences in Food Preferences and Consumption Patterns," cultural anthropology theory provides a framework for examining how cultural background influences individuals' dietary choices and eating behaviors across diverse populations.By adopting a culturally relativistic approach, researchers can explore the cultural meanings and significance attached to food within different cultural groups, shedding light on the socio-cultural factors that shape food preferences and consumption patterns (Brewis et al., 2013).This theory underscores the importance of cultural context in understanding food-related behaviors and highlights the need for culturally sensitive research methods and interventions in promoting healthy and sustainable diets across diverse populations.

Social Identity Theory
Social identity theory, developed by social psychologists Henri Tajfel and John Turner, explores how individuals' self-concept and identity are shaped by their membership in social groups and categories (Tajfel & Turner, 1986).According to this theory, people categorize themselves and others into ingroups (groups to which they belong) and outgroups (groups to which they do not belong), and derive a sense of self-esteem and identity from their group memberships.In the context of food preferences and consumption patterns, social identity theory provides insights into how cultural affiliations and group memberships influence individuals' dietary choices and behaviors.People often use food as a marker of social identity, expressing their cultural heritage, values, and belonging through food choices and eating practices (Cohen, 2015).By understanding the role of social identity in shaping food preferences, researchers can elucidate how cultural norms, peer influences, and social comparisons impact individuals' dietary behaviors within different cultural contexts.This theory underscores the interplay between social factors and individual food choices, highlighting the need to consider social identity dynamics in cross-cultural research on food preferences and consumption patterns.

Ecological Systems Theory
Ecological systems theory, proposed by developmental psychologist Urie Bronfenbrenner, emphasizes the interconnectedness between individuals and their social, cultural, and physical environments (Bronfenbrenner, 1979).This theory posits that human development is influenced by multiple nested systems, including the microsystem (individual's immediate environment), mesosystem (interactions between different microsystems), exosystem (external settings indirectly influencing development), and macrosystem (cultural values, norms, and ideologies).In the context of food preferences and consumption patterns, ecological systems theory provides a comprehensive framework for understanding how individuals' dietary behaviors are shaped by various environmental factors, including cultural, social, economic, and environmental influences (Cullen et al., 2017).By examining the dynamic interactions between individuals and their cultural contexts, researchers can identify the multi-level determinants of food preferences and consumption patterns across different cultural groups.This theory underscores the importance of considering broader ecological factors in understanding cross-cultural variations in dietary behaviors and highlights the need for multi-level interventions to promote healthy and sustainable diets within diverse populations.

Empirical Review
Wang, Lo & Qin (2019) investigated cross-cultural differences in food preferences and consumption patterns among Chinese and American college students.A mixed-methods approach was employed, including surveys and focus group interviews.The surveys assessed participants' food preferences, dietary habits, and cultural attitudes towards food, while focus group interviews provided in-depth insights into cultural influences on food choices.The study found significant differences in food preferences and consumption patterns between Chinese and American college students.Chinese students expressed a preference for traditional Chinese dishes and emphasized the importance of communal dining experiences, while American students showed a preference for fast food and convenience foods.Cultural factors, such as family influence and cultural heritage, were identified as key determinants of food choices.The findings suggest the importance of considering cultural influences in promoting healthy eating behaviors among college students.Culturally tailored interventions and educational programs should be developed to address cross-cultural differences in food preferences and consumption patterns.
Martinez Steele, Rauber & Monteiro (2018) examined the impact of urbanization on food preferences and consumption patterns in Brazil.A nationally representative survey was conducted to assess changes in dietary habits and food choices among Brazilian adults living in urban and rural areas.Data on food purchasing behavior, consumption of processed foods, and adherence to traditional dietary patterns were collected and analyzed.The study found that urbanization was associated with shifts in food preferences and consumption patterns, with urban residents showing a higher consumption of processed and convenience foods compared to their rural counterparts.Despite these changes, traditional Brazilian dietary patterns remained prevalent in both urban and rural areas, highlighting the persistence of cultural food preferences.The findings underscore the need for policies and interventions to promote healthy eating habits in urban settings.Efforts should focus on increasing access to fresh, nutritious foods and discouraging the consumption of ultra-processed products.Additionally, culturally sensitive approaches should be adopted to preserve traditional dietary practices in the face of urbanization.Kim, Park & Lee (2017) explored cross-cultural differences in food preferences and consumption patterns among South Korean and American adolescents.A comparative survey was conducted among adolescents from South Korea and the United States to assess their food preferences, dietary habits, and cultural attitudes towards food.Statistical analyses were performed to identify differences between the two groups.The study revealed significant cross-cultural differences in food preferences and consumption patterns among South Korean and American adolescents.South Korean adolescents showed a preference for traditional Korean dishes and emphasized the importance of family meals, while American adolescents exhibited a preference for fast food and snacks.Cultural factors, such as family influence and media exposure, were identified as key determinants of food choices.The findings highlight the need for culturally sensitive interventions to promote healthy eating behaviors among adolescents.Educational programs should be tailored to address cultural influences on food preferences and consumption patterns, with a focus on promoting traditional dietary practices and reducing the consumption of unhealthy foods.
Perez-Escamilla & Bermudez (2018) investigated cross-cultural differences in food preferences and consumption patterns among Hispanic/Latino populations living in the United States.A mixedmethods approach was employed, including surveys and qualitative interviews.Surveys assessed participants' food preferences, dietary habits, and acculturation levels, while qualitative interviews provided insights into cultural influences on food choices and eating behaviors.The study found significant variations in food preferences and consumption patterns among Hispanic/Latino subgroups living in the United States.While some groups maintained traditional dietary practices, others exhibited a greater adoption of Westernized diets.Acculturation was identified as a key factor influencing food choices, with higher acculturation levels associated with a shift towards more processed and convenience foods.The findings underscore the importance of considering cultural diversity within Hispanic/Latino populations when developing nutrition interventions and public health policies.Culturally tailored approaches should be implemented to promote healthy eating behaviors while preserving traditional dietary practices among Hispanic/Latino communities.Gong, Gong & Ji (2016) explored cross-cultural differences in food preferences and consumption patterns among Chinese and British adults.A comparative study was conducted using surveys and dietary assessments.Participants from China and the UK were surveyed about their food preferences, dietary habits, and cultural attitudes towards food.Dietary assessments were used to quantify participants' food intake and nutrient consumption.The study revealed significant cross-cultural differences in food preferences and consumption patterns between Chinese and British adults.Chinese participants showed a preference for traditional Chinese cuisine and consumed more rice, vegetables, and tea, while British participants exhibited a preference for Westernized foods and consumed more meat, dairy, and processed foods.Cultural factors, such as culinary traditions and lifestyle habits, were identified as key determinants of dietary behaviors.The findings highlight the need for culturally sensitive nutrition education programs and dietary guidelines that take into account the cultural differences between Chinese and British populations.Strategies should be developed to promote healthy eating behaviors while respecting cultural diversity and culinary traditions.
Lee & Sohn (2014) examined cross-cultural differences in food preferences and consumption patterns among Korean immigrants living in the United States.A qualitative study was conducted using indepth interviews with Korean immigrants.Participants were asked about their food preferences, dietary habits, and experiences with food acculturation in the United States.The study identified significant differences in food preferences and consumption patterns between Korean immigrants and the general American population.Korean immigrants tended to maintain traditional dietary practices and consumed more rice, vegetables, and fermented foods compared to their American counterparts.However, they also reported making adaptations to their diets to accommodate to the American food environment, such as incorporating more meat and dairy products.The findings highlight the importance of providing culturally appropriate nutrition education and support services to Korean immigrants in the United States.Programs should be tailored to address the unique dietary needs and challenges faced by immigrant populations while preserving their cultural food traditions.
Alkon & Agyeman (2018) explored cross-cultural differences in food preferences and consumption patterns among low-income communities in urban areas.A community-based participatory research approach was employed, involving focus groups and interviews with residents from diverse cultural backgrounds.Participants were asked about their food preferences, access to healthy foods, and experiences with food-related challenges.The study revealed significant variations in food preferences and consumption patterns among low-income urban communities.While some participants expressed a preference for traditional foods from their cultural backgrounds, others reported relying on inexpensive, processed foods due to limited financial resources.Cultural factors, socioeconomic status, and neighborhood environments were identified as key determinants of food choices.The findings underscore the need for policies and programs that address food insecurity and promote access to healthy foods in low-income urban communities.Culturally relevant interventions should be developed to empower residents to make healthier food choices while respecting their cultural preferences and constraints.

METHODOLOGY
The study adopted a desktop research methodology.Desk research refers to secondary data or that which can be collected without fieldwork.Desk research is basically involved in collecting data from existing resources hence it is often considered a low cost technique as compared to field research, as the main cost is involved in executive's time, telephone charges and directories.Thus, the study relied on already published studies, reports and statistics.This secondary data was easily accessed through the online journals and library.

FINDINGS
This study presented both a contextual and methodological gap.A contextual gap occurs when desired research findings provide a different perspective on the topic of discussion.For instance, Alkon & Agyeman (2018) explored cross-cultural differences in food preferences and consumption patterns among low-income communities in urban areas.A community-based participatory research approach was employed, involving focus groups and interviews with residents from diverse cultural backgrounds.Participants were asked about their food preferences, access to healthy foods, and experiences with food-related challenges.The study revealed significant variations in food preferences and consumption patterns among low-income urban communities.The findings underscore the need for policies and programs that address food insecurity and promote access to healthy foods in lowincome urban communities.Culturally relevant interventions should be developed to empower residents to make healthier food choices while respecting their cultural preferences and constraints.On the other hand, the current study focused on investigating the cross-cultural differences in food preferences and consumption patterns.
Secondly, a methodological gap also presents itself, for example, in their study on cross-cultural differences in food preferences and consumption patterns among low-income communities in urban areas; Alkon & Agyeman (2018) employed community-based participatory research approach, involving focus groups and interviews with residents from diverse cultural backgrounds.Participants were asked about their food preferences, access to healthy foods, and experiences with food-related challenges.Whereas, the current study adopted a desktop research method.

Conclusion
The study provides valuable insights into the complex interplay between cultural background and dietary behaviors across diverse populations.Through a comprehensive analysis of food preferences and consumption patterns among various cultural groups, the study has highlighted significant variations in dietary habits, culinary traditions, and food choices across different regions and ethnicities.The findings underscore the importance of recognizing cultural diversity and understanding cultural influences on food-related behaviors to promote healthy and sustainable diets worldwide.One of the key conclusions drawn from the study is the profound impact of cultural heritage on individuals' food preferences and consumption patterns.The study revealed that cultural factors, such as culinary traditions, family influences, and social norms, play a pivotal role in shaping dietary behaviors within specific cultural contexts.For example, individuals from different cultural backgrounds exhibited distinct preferences for traditional foods and dining practices, reflecting the deep-rooted connection between food and culture.By acknowledging the cultural significance of food, policymakers, healthcare professionals, and nutritionists can develop more effective strategies to promote culturally sensitive nutrition interventions and dietary guidelines.
Furthermore, the study highlighted the influence of globalization and urbanization on food preferences and consumption patterns.As societies become increasingly interconnected, cultural exchange and acculturation contribute to the adoption of Westernized diets and lifestyle habits in diverse cultural settings.However, the study also revealed the resilience of traditional dietary practices amidst rapid social and environmental changes.Despite the prevalence of global food trends, many cultural groups continue to prioritize traditional foods and culinary customs, emphasizing the importance of preserving cultural heritage in the face of globalization.Moreover, the study underscored the importance of considering socio-economic factors in understanding cross-cultural differences in dietary behaviors.Socioeconomic status, access to resources, and environmental factors significantly influence individuals' food choices and eating habits across different cultural contexts.Low-income communities, in particular, face unique challenges related to food affordability, accessibility, and nutritional disparities.Addressing these socio-economic determinants of dietary behaviors is essential for promoting food security, reducing health inequalities, and improving dietary outcomes among culturally diverse populations.

Recommendations
The study contributes to theoretical frameworks by enriching our understanding of how cultural background shapes individuals' dietary behaviors.By identifying the cultural factors that influence food preferences and consumption patterns, the study adds depth to existing theories such as cultural anthropology, social identity theory, and ecological systems theory.It underscores the importance of considering cultural context in explaining dietary behaviors and highlights the dynamic interplay between cultural, social, economic, and environmental factors in shaping individuals' food choices.
From a practical perspective, the study's findings offer valuable insights for developing culturally sensitive interventions and educational programs aimed at promoting healthy eating behaviors.By recognizing the diversity of food preferences and consumption patterns across different cultural groups, practitioners can tailor their approaches to meet the specific needs and preferences of diverse populations.Culturally tailored nutrition education materials, cooking classes, and community-based programs can empower individuals to make healthier food choices while respecting their cultural heritage and traditions.
At the policy level, the study's recommendations inform the development of evidence-based policies and guidelines to address diet-related health disparities and promote food security and nutrition equity.By acknowledging the cultural diversity within populations, policymakers can design interventions that prioritize cultural relevance and inclusivity.For example, policies aimed at improving access to healthy foods in underserved communities should consider cultural preferences and dietary traditions to ensure their effectiveness and acceptance.Additionally, the study highlights the need for crosscultural collaborations and partnerships to address global nutrition challenges and promote sustainable food systems.Overall, the recommendations provided by the study offer actionable steps for advancing theory, practice, and policy in the field of nutrition and public health.By recognizing the complex interplay of cultural, social, economic, and environmental factors in shaping individuals' food choices, stakeholders can work collaboratively to develop holistic approaches that promote healthy and sustainable diets for all populations, irrespective of cultural background.