The Long-Term Influence of the Training on Good Agricultural Practices in Nandi County, Kenya
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.47941/jap.2695Keywords:
Food Safety, Extension Services, Food Security, Maize Value Chain, Farm PracticesAbstract
Purpose: This study made comparisons on the state of Knowledge, attitude and practices of the trained farmers for the year 2017 against the same cohort in the year 2023 with an aim of evaluating the long-term influence of agricultural training in maize farming in Nandi County Kenya. The study also evaluated the state of Knowledge, attitude and practices of the same trained farmers against untrained farmers by the end of the year 2023.
Methodology: A previous study was followed up in the year 2023 to evaluate the role and a six-year long-term influence of the training on the practices. The data was collected through farm interviews. The positive responses of the practices obtained from the administered questionnaires were recorded. A comparison was then made for the responses on the use of twenty Agricultural practices by the trained farmers in the year 2017 and 2023 and also the same responses of the 30 trained farmers against 30 other untrained farmers by the end of the year 2023.
Findings: The results were analyzed for significant differences based on the relationships of the independent variables by using descriptive statistics, proportion of means. No significant difference was detected in either of the approaches. The analyses of the practices between the trained farmers and untrained farmers showed no significant difference with p >0.05. A general decline in the adoption of the practices from 91.15% to 81.3% between the years 2017 and 2023 was noted. Poor harvesting and post-harvesting operations during sorting and drying of maize that could enhance aflatoxin infections in the maize value chain were also noted.
Unique Contribution to Theory, Practice and Policy: The study comprises of a mixture of theories. The theory of planned behavior, the innovation itself and diffusion of Innovation theory and technology acceptance, played a big role in evaluating the changes in attitude, long-term influence of the training and time needed to propagate the knowledge gained from the training. The influence of climatic, environmental conditions, and socio-economic factors pose challenges to food safety and food security in general. If these factors are not checked regularly to enhance good farming practices, the elaboration of toxins and the occurrence of various mycotoxicosis in both animals and human beings will be high. Therefore, regular farm training is recommended during every planting season to improve consistence in GAP application and mycotoxin mitigation.
Downloads
References
Blandino, M., Reyneri, A., & Vanara, F. (2008). Effect of plant density on toxigenic fungal infection and mycotoxin contamination of maize kernels. Field Crops Research, 106(3), 234–241. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fcr.2007.12.004
Bruns, H. A. (2003). Controlling Aflatoxin and Fumonisin in Maize by Crop Management. Journal of Toxicology: Toxin Reviews, 22(2–3), 153–173. https://doi.org/10.1081/TXR-120024090
Bryceson and Howe. (1992). Agriculture food and nutrition for Africa—A resource book for teachers of agriculture. https://www.fao.org/4/w0078e/w0078e07.htm
CAST. (2019). Council for agricultural science and technology interpretive summary mycotoxins: Risks in plant, animal, and human systems. (Issue January).
Connor, J. T., & Imrey, P. B. (2014). Proportions: Inferences and Comparisons. In N. Balakrishnan (Ed.), Methods and Applications of Statistics in Clinical Trials (1st ed., pp. 570–594). Wiley. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118596333.ch34
Daniel, W. W. (1999). Biostatistics: A Foundation for Analysis in the Health Sciences. Wiley.
Daniel, W. W. (2009). Biostatistics: Basic Concepts and Methodology for the Health Sciences (Wiley Series in Probability and Statistics) 9th International st edition by Daniel, Wayne W. (2009) Paperback (9th International edition). John Wiley & Sons Ltd.
Demissie, N. (2018). A Review of Aflatoxin: Occurrence, Prevention, and Gaps in Both Food and Feed Safety. Novel Techniques in Nutrition & Food Science, 1(3), 51–60. https://doi.org/10.31031/ntnf.2018.01.000511
Diener, U. L., Cole, R. J., Sanders, T. H., Payne, G. A., Lee, L. S., & Klich, M. A. (1987). Epidemiology of Aflatoxin Formation by Aspergillus Flavus*. Annual Review of Phytopathology, 25(1), 249–270. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.py.25.090187.001341
EAS. (2011). EAST AFRICAN STANDARD: Maize grains—Specification. https://law.resource.org/pub/eac/ibr/eas.2.2011.html
Ezekiel, C., Ortega-Beltran, A., & Bandyopadhyay, R. (2019). The need for integrated approaches to address food safety risk: The case of mycotoxins in Africa. First FAO/WHO/AU International Food Safety Conference. 12-13 Feb, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, Paca, 2016–2018.
Fandohan, P., Ahouansou, R., Houssou, P., Hell, K., Marasas, W. F. O., & Wingfield, M. J. (2006). Impact of mechanical shelling and dehulling on Fusarium infection and fumonisin contamination in maize. Food Additives and Contaminants, 23(4), 415–421. https://doi.org/10.1080/02652030500442516
Fandohan, P., Zoumenou, D., Hounhouigan, D. J., Marasas, W. F. O., Wingfield, M. J., & Hell, K. (2005). Fate of aflatoxins and fumonisins during the processing of maize into food products in Benin. International Journal of Food Microbiology, 98(3), 249–259. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2004.07.007
FAO. (2019). World Food and Agriculture—Statistical Pocketbook 2019.
Finckh, M. R. (2008). Integration of breeding and technology into diversification strategies for disease control in modern agriculture. In D. B. Collinge, L. Munk, & B. M. Cooke (Eds.), Sustainable disease management in a European context (pp. 399–409). Springer Netherlands. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4020-8780-6_19
Hawkins, L. K., Windham, G. L., & Williams, W. P. (2005). Effect of different postharvest drying temperatures on Aspergillus flavus survival and aflatoxin content in five maize hybrids. Journal of Food Protection, 68(7), 1521–1524. https://doi.org/10.4315/0362-028X-68.7.1521
Heathcote, J. G., Hibbert, J. R., & Heathcote, J. G. (1978). Aflatoxins: Chemical and biological aspects. Elsevier Scientific Publ.
Hell, K., Cardwell, K. F., Setamou, M., & Poehling, H. M. (2000). The influence of storage practices on aflatoxin contamination in maize in four agroecological zones of Benin, West Africa. Journal of Stored Products Research, 36(4), 365–382. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0022-474X(99)00056-9
Hell, K., Cardwell, K., Setamou, M., & Schulthess, F. (2000). Influence of insect infestation on aflatoxin contamination of stored maize in four agroecological regions in Benin. African Entomology, 8, 169–177.
Kang’Ethe, E. K., Korhonen, H., Marimba, K. A., Nduhiu, G., Mungatu, J. K., Okoth, S. A., Joutsjoki, V., Wamae, L. W., & Shalo, P. (2017). Management and mitigation of health risks associated with the occurrence of mycotoxins along the maize value chain in two counties in Kenya. Food Quality and Safety, 1(4), 268–274. https://doi.org/10.1093/fqsafe/fyx025
Kebede, H., Abbas, H. K., Fisher, D. K., & Bellaloui, N. (2012). Relationship between aflatoxin contamination and physiological responses of corn plants under drought and heat stress. Toxins, 4(11), 1385–1403. https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins4111385
KEBS. (2018). Kenya Bureau of Standards – Standards for Quality Life. https://www.kebs.org/
Koskei, P. K. (2022). Post-Harvest Knowledge, Perceptions and Practices by Farmers and Diversity of Fusarium Species and Fumonisin Contamination of Maize from Rift Valley and Lower Eastern Regions of Kenya [Thesis]. http://repository.kemri.go.ke:8080/xmlui/handle/123456789/477
Lachenbruch, P. A., Lwanga, S. K., & Lemeshow, S. (1991). Sample Size Determination in Health Studies: A Practical Manual. Journal of the American Statistical Association, 86(416), 1149. https://doi.org/10.2307/2290547
Liebman, M., & Dyck, E. (1993). Crop rotation and intercropping strategies for weed management. Ecological Applications, 3(1), 92–122. https://doi.org/10.2307/1941795
Liu, Z., Zhang, G., Zhang, Y., Jin, Q., Zhao, J., & Li, J. (2016). Factors controlling mycotoxin contamination in maize and food in the Hebei province, China. Agronomy for Sustainable Development, 36(2). https://doi.org/10.1007/s13593-016-0374-x
Logrieco, A., Battilani, P., Leggieri, M. C., Jiang, Y., Haesaert, G., Lanubile, A., Mahuku, G., Mesterhazy, A., Ortega-Beltran, A., Pasti, M., Smeu, I., Torres, A., Xu, J., & Munkvold, G. (2021). Perspectives on global mycotoxin issues and management from the mycokey maize working group. Plant Disease, 105(3), 525–537. https://doi.org/10.1094/PDIS-06-20-1322-FE
Magnussen, A., & Parsi, M. A. (2013). Aflatoxins, hepatocellular carcinoma and public health. World Journal of Gastroenterology, 19(10), 1508–1512. https://doi.org/10.3748/wjg.v19.i10.1508
Manu, N., Opit, G. P., Osekre, E. A., Arthur, F. H., Mbata, G., Armstrong, P., Danso, J. K., McNeill, S. G., & Campbell, J. F. (2019a). Moisture content, insect pest infestation and mycotoxin levels of maize in markets in the northern region of Ghana. Journal of Stored Products Research, 80(March), 10–20. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jspr.2018.10.007
Manu, N., Opit, G. P., Osekre, E. A., Arthur, F. H., Mbata, G., Armstrong, P., Danso, J. K., McNeill, S. G., & Campbell, J. F. (2019b). Moisture content, insect pest infestation and mycotoxin levels of maize in markets in the northern region of Ghana. Journal of Stored Products Research, 80, 10–20. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jspr.2018.10.007
Marete, G., Kanja, L., Mbaria, J., Okumu, M., Ateku, P., Korhonen, H., & Joutsjoki, V. (2019). Effects of the Use of Good Agricultural Practices on Aflatoxin Levels in Maize Grown in Nandi County, Kenya. Sci, 1(1), 28. https://doi.org/10.3390/sci1010028
Massomo, S. M. S. (2020). Aspergillus flavus and aflatoxin contamination in the maize value chain and what needs to be done in Tanzania. Scientific African, 10(October), e00606. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sciaf.2020.e00606
Mbugua, S. K., & Gathumbi, J. K. (2004a). The contamination of Kenyan lager beers with Fusarium mycotoxins. Journal of the Institute of Brewing, 110(3), 227–229. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.2050-0416.2004.tb00207.x
Mbugua, S. K., & Gathumbi, J. K. (2004b). The Contamination of Kenyan Lager Beers with Fusarium Mycotoxins. Journal of the Institute of Brewing, 110(3), 227–229. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.2050-0416.2004.tb00207.x
Munkvold, G. P. (2003). Cultural and Genetic Approaches to Managing Mycotoxins in Maize. Annual Review of Phytopathology, 41(May), 99–116. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.phyto.41.052002.095510
Muthomi, J. W., Njenga, L. N., Gathumbi, J. K., & Chemining, G. N. (2009). The Occurrence of Aflatoxins in Maize and Distribution of Mycotoxin-Producing Fungi in Eastern Kenya. Plant Pathology Journal, 8(3), 113–119. https://doi.org/10.3923/ppj.2009.113.119
Mutiga, S. K., Mushongi, A. A., & Kangéthe, E. K. (2019). Enhancing food safety through adoption of long-term technical advisory, financial, and storage support services in maize growing areas of East Africa. Sustainability (Switzerland), 11(10). https://doi.org/10.3390/su11102827
Mutiga, S. K., Were, V., Hoffmann, V., Harvey, J. W., Milgroom, M. G., & Nelson, R. J. (2014). Extent and Drivers of Mycotoxin Contamination: Inferences from a Survey of Kenyan Maize Mills. Phytopathology®, 104(11), 1221–1231. https://doi.org/10.1094/PHYTO-01-14-0006-R
Nkwe, D. O., Taylor, J. E., & Siame, B. A. (2005a). Fungi, aflatoxins, fumonisin B1 and zearalenone contaminating sorghum-based traditional malt, wort and beer in Botswana. Mycopathologia, 160(2), 177–186. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11046-005-6867-9
Nkwe, D. O., Taylor, J. E., & Siame, B. A. (2005b). Fungi, Aflatoxins, Fumonisin Bl and Zearalenone Contaminating Sorghum-based Traditional Malt, Wort and Beer in Botswana. Mycopathologia, 160(2), 177–186. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11046-005-6867-9
Okioma, M. N. (2008). The 2004 and 2005 aflatoxin tragedies in Kenya—A case study. Mycotoxins: Detection Methods, Management, Public Health and Agricultural Trade, 127–131. https://doi.org/10.1079/9781845930820.0127
Omara, O., Timothy. (2021). The Scourge of Aflatoxins in Kenya: A 60‐Year Review (1960 to 2020)—Omara—2021—Journal of Food Quality—Wiley Online Library. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1155/2021/8899839
Omara, T., Kiprop, A. K., Wangila, P., Wacoo, A. P., Kagoya, S., Nteziyaremye, P., Peter Odero, M., Kiwanuka Nakiguli, C., & Baker Obakiro, S. (2021). The Scourge of Aflatoxins in Kenya: A 60-Year Review (1960 to 2020). Journal of Food Quality, 2021, 1–31. https://doi.org/10.1155/2021/8899839
Probst, C., Njapau, H., & Cotty, P. J. (2007). Outbreak of an Acute Aflatoxicosis in Kenya in 2004: Identification of the Causal Agent. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 73(8), 2762–2764. https://doi.org/10.1128/AEM.02370-06
Sauro, J., & Lewis, J. R. (2012). Quantifying the User Experience: Practical Statistics for User Research (1st edition). Morgan Kaufmann.
Shephard, G. S., Van Der Westhuizen, L., Gatyeni, P. M., Somdyala, N. I. M., Burger, H.-M., & Marasas, W. F. O. (2005). Fumonisin Mycotoxins in Traditional Xhosa Maize Beer in South Africa. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 53(24), 9634–9637. https://doi.org/10.1021/jf0516080
Sumner, P., & Lee, D. (2017). Reducing aflatoxin in corn during harvest and storage. UGA Cooperative Extension Bulletin 1231, 6 pp.
Turner, P. C., Sylla, A., Gong, Y. Y., Diallo, M. S., Sutcliffe, A. E., Hall, A. J., & Wild, C. P. (2005). Reduction in exposure to carcinogenic aflatoxins by postharvest intervention measures in west Africa: A community-based intervention study. Lancet, 365(9475), 1950–1956. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(05)66661-5
Udoh, J. M., Cardwell, K. F., & Ikotun, T. (2000). Storage structures and aflatoxin content of maize in five agroecological zones of Nigeria. Journal of Stored Products Research, 36(2), 187–201. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0022-474X(99)00042-9
Wagacha, J. M., & Muthomi, J. W. (2008). Mycotoxin problem in Africa: Current status, implications to food safety and health and possible management strategies. International Journal of Food Microbiology, 124(1), 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2008.01.008
Winfred, M. K., Joshua, O. O., Jackson, N. O., & Peter, B. G. (2022). Knowledge of subsistence maize farmers on aflatoxin contamination and determinants for adoption of artisanal control technologies in Kitui, Kenya. Journal of Agricultural Extension and Rural Development, 14(4), 198–209. https://doi.org/10.5897/jaerd2022.1348
Yau. (2018). Aflatoxins in Food. Food Safety Focus. https://www.cfs.gov.hk/english/multimedia/multimedia_pub/multimedia_pub_fsf_73_02.html
Zummo, N. (1992). Interaction of Fusarium moniliforme and Aspergillus flavus on Kernel Infection and Aflatoxin Contamination in Maize Ears. Plant Disease, 76(8), 771. https://doi.org/10.1094/pd-76-0771
Downloads
Published
How to Cite
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2025 Daniel Nyukuri Kwoba, James Mucunu Mbaria, Isaac Mpapuluu Ole-Mapenay, Irene Thiguku Kamanja, Penina Ateku

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
Authors retain copyright and grant the journal right of first publication with the work simultaneously licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution (CC-BY) 4.0 License that allows others to share the work with an acknowledgment of the work's authorship and initial publication in this journal.