Physical, Chemical, and Biological Characteristics of Water Sources Adopted by Secondary Schools in Mbeere South Sub-County, Kenya
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.47941/je.3659Keywords:
Water Sources, Physico-Chemical properties, Biological Characteristics, Secondary SchoolsAbstract
Purpose: This study assessed the quality of water sources used by secondary schools in Mbeere South Sub-County, an arid and semi-arid area of Kenya, and examined schools’ adaptive strategies to water challenges. Grounded in Resource Dependence Theory (RDT), the study contributes to SDG 6 (clean water and sanitation).
Methodology: A descriptive survey design was adopted. A census of all 33 secondary schools was conducted. Data were collected through structured questionnaires, observation checklists, and laboratory analysis of water samples from earth dams, rainwater, piped water, and boreholes. Nineteen physico-chemical and microbiological parameters were analysed according to WHO and APHA standards.
Findings: Significant differences in water quality were found across sources (one-way ANOVA: F(4,335) = 12.62, p < 0.001). Rainwater was the safest, while piped water showed post-treatment coliform recontamination. Earth dams had high turbidity and microbial contamination, and boreholes were microbiologically safe but very hard. Two-way ANOVA confirmed strong source and interaction effects.
Unique Contribution to Theory, Policy and Practice: The study advances Resource Dependence Theory by showing how schools mitigate water risks through source diversification. It recommends first-flush disinfection for rainwater, chlorination of piped water, catchment protection for dams, borehole softening, and regular school-based monitoring. These findings provide practical policy directions for improving WASH resilience in ASAL secondary schools.
Downloads
References
American Public Health Association (APHA). (2017). Standard methods for the examination of water and wastewater (23rd ed.). American Public Health Association, American Water Works Association, & Water Environment Federation
Collins, A., & Flynn, A. (2015). The ecological footprint: New developments in policy and practice. Edward Elgar Publishing.
Davis, G. F., & Cobb, J. A. (2020). Resource Dependence Theory: Past and Future. Research in the Sociology of Organizations, 58, 55-84. https://doi.org/10.1108/S0733-558X20200000058003
Gakaria, N. M., & Nzeve, J. K. (2021). Assessment of water quality in selected dams in Machakos Municipality, Kenya. Journal of Environment and Earth Science, 11 (10), 1–12. https://doi.org/10.7176/JEES/11-10-01
Gikandi, J., Wambua, P., & Kinyua, S. (2020). Water Scarcity and Conservation in Schools: Case Study of Rural Kenya. Journal of Environmental Management, 25(3), 45-59. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2020.05.033
Kothari, C. R. (2014). Research Methodology: Methods and Techniques (2nd ed.). New Age International Publishers.
Mugenda, O. M., & Mugenda, A. G. (2003). Research Methods: Quantitative and Qualitative Approaches. Nairobi: Acts Press.
Mworia, J. K. (2018). Water quality in piped supplies in Kenya. Journal of Water Supply: Research and Technology-AQUA, 67(5), 456–467. https://doi.org/10.2166/aqua.2018.123
Njeru, J. (2021). Water Resource Management in Schools in Semi-Arid Regions of Kenya: A Case Study of Mbeere South Sub-county. African Journal of Environmental Sciences, 22(4), 98-110. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ajesc.2021.04.003
Nyaga, J., Kinyua, S., & Kamau, M. (2021). Resource Management Practices in Secondary Schools in Kenya: Implications for Sustainable Development. Sustainability Journal of Education, 12(2), 59-74. https://doi.org/10.3390/su1202059
Owusu-Boateng, G., & Gadogbe, M. K. (2015). Variation in the Quality of Harvested Rainwater from Source to Storage in a Water-Stressed Community in Ghana. American Journal of Water Science and Engineering, 1 (2), 9–18. https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ajwse.20150102.11
Patton, M. Q. (2015). Qualitative Research & Evaluation Methods: Integrating Theory and Practice (4th ed.). SAGE Publications.
Pfeffer, J., & Salancik, G. R. (1978). The External Control of Organizations: A Resource Dependence Perspective. Harper & Row.
Sila, O. N. (2019). Physico-chemical and Bacteriological Quality of Water Sources in Rural Settings, A Case Study of Kenya, Africa. Scientific African, 2, Article e00018. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sciaf.2018.e00018
Tavakol, M., & Dennick, R. (2011). Making Sense of Cronbach’s Alpha. International Journal of Medical Education, 2, 53-55. https://doi.org/10.5116/ijme.4dfb.8dfd
UNESCO (2022). Water and Energy Nexus in Education. Paris: UNESCO Publishing.
UNICEF (2021). Water, Sanitation and Hygiene (WASH) in Schools: Global Baseline Report. New York, NY: UNICEF.
United Nations. (2021). Sustainable Development Goals Report 2021. New York, NY: United Nations.
Yamane, T. (1967). Statistics: An Introductory Analysis (2nd ed.). New York: Harper and Row.
Downloads
Published
How to Cite
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2026 Charity Wanjiru Mwangi, Dr. Moses Kathuri Njeru, Dr. Agatha Nthenge Muthio
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
Authors retain copyright and grant the journal right of first publication with the work simultaneously licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution (CC-BY) 4.0 License that allows others to share the work with an acknowledgment of the work's authorship and initial publication in this journal.
