How Emergency and Recovery Support Functions Failed to Address Short and Long-term Cascading Disasters after a High-Latitude Extratropical Bering Sea Cyclone Impacted Geographically Isolated US Indigenous Coastal Communities.
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.47941/jcp.3229Keywords:
Cascading disaster, Emergency support functions, Recovery support functions, Capabilities, Short and long termAbstract
Purpose: From September 10-20, 2022, a central Pacific Ocean cyclone developed into Typhoon Merbok then transitioned into an extratropical post-typhoon where its remnants became stronger and impacted the 2100-kilometer (1300-mile) geographically isolated western coastline of Alaska. This research formally documented the immediate aftermath cascade disaster and what role Merbok played to exacerbate an ongoing cascading series of disasters by examining application of core emergency and recovery support function capabilities in both short- and long-term timeframes.
Methodology: Descriptive research using a collective case study was used.
Findings: While some successes were noted, the research found both the emergency and recovery support functions were overall ineffective and did not function which resulted in exacerbation of the cascading hazard event in short-term recovery and long-term resilience.
Unique Contribution to Theory, Policy, and Practice: This research looked beyond just disaster impact to examine how a storm exposed broader ramifications questioning where Indigenous villages were established, access to these locations, what was considered infrastructure compared to other US locations, how the emergency and recovery support functions failed to adequately implement their respective core functions, decimation of the ability to maintain an Indigenous subsistence lifestyle, and what was needed for recovery versus resilience for the people involved. The findings impact both response to major disasters and preparedness considerations for remote and geographically isolated locations.
Downloads
References
Alaska Department of Commerce (AKDoC). n.d.. Kivalina Inter-Agency Planning Work Group. State of Alaska. https://www.commerce.alaska.gov/web/dcra/PlanningLandManagement/KivalinaInter-AgencyPlanningWorkGroup.aspx
Alaska Department of Public Safety (AKDPS). 2024. Fire and life safety, Fire Department directory. State of Alaska. https://dps.alaska.gov/fire/fdregistration
Alaska Department of Transportation and Public Facilities (AKDOTPF). October 21, 2022. Western Alaska storm response. State of Alaska. https://dot.alaska.gov/2022storms/
Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act (ANCSA) of 1971, 43 U.S.C. ch 33 et seq. PL 92-203, 85 Stat. 688 (1971)
Alaska Native Tribal Health Consortium (ANTHC). 2024. Unmet needs of environmentally threatened Alaska Native villages: Assessment and recommendations. Alaska Native Tribal Health Consortium, Anchorage, AK. https://www.anthc.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/01/Unmet_Needs_Report_22JAN24.pdf
Alexander, David. 2018. A magnitude scale for cascading disasters. International Journal of Disaster Risk Reduction, 30, 180-185
Alexander, David and Gianaluca Pescaroli. 2019. What are cascading disasters?. UCL open. Environment, 1, e003. https://doi.org/10.14324/111.444/ucloe.000003
American Red Cross (ARC). October 12, 2022. American Red Cross responds to western Alaska storms. American Red Cross. https://www.redcross.org/local/alaska/about-us/news-and-events/news/american-red-cross-responds-to-western-alaska-storms.html
Alaska Center for Climate Assessment and Policy (ACCAP). 2024. Historical sea ice atlas for Alaska & the Arctic 1850 to present. University of Alaska Fairbanks. https://snap.uaf.edu/tools/sea-ice-atlas
Alaska Center for Climate Assessment and Policy (ACCAP). 2025. Historic extreme events library. University of Alaska Fairbanks. https://uaf-accap.org/projects/extreme-events-library/
Baldwin, David A. 1997. The concept of security. Review of International Studies, 23:5-26. https://www.jstor.org/stable/20097464
Bednarek, Angela T., Carina Wyborn, Christopher Cvitanovic, Ryan Meyer, Rebecca M. Colvin, Prue F.E. Addison, Sandra L. Close, K Curran, Mahmud Farooque, Erica Goldman, David Hart, Heather Mannix, Birdie McGreavy, Adam Parris, Stephen Posner, Cynthia Robinson, Melanie Ryan, and Peat Leith. 2018. Boundary spanning at the science–policy interface: the practitioners’ perspectives. Sustainability Science, 13, 1175-1183. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11625-018-0550-9
Berke, Philip and David Godschalk. 2008. Searching for the good plan: A meta-analysis of plan quality studies. Journal of Planning Literature. 23, 227-240. DOI: 10.1177/0885412208327014
Berke, Philip, David Godschalk, Edward Kaiser, and Daniel Rodriguez. 2006. Urban land use planning (5th ed.). University of Illinois Press
Blanchard, B.Wayne. October 12, 2007. Emergency management-related terms & definitions guide. Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA), US Department of Homeland Security, Washington, DC. https://www.hsdl.org/?view&did=745967
Bouchrika, Imed. January 2, 2024. Types of research design in 2024: Perspective and methodological approaches. Research.com. https://research.com/research/types-of-research-design
Brugger, Julie, Alison Meadow, and Alexandra Horangic. 2016. Lessons from first-generation climate science integrators. Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society, 97(3), 355-365. DOI:10.1175/BAMS-D-14-00289.1
Bush, George W. February 28, 2003a. Homeland Security Presidential Directive (HSPD)-5: Management of Domestic Incidents. Public papers of the Presidents of the United States, Book I, 229-234. US Government Publishing Office
Bush, George W. December 17, 2003b. Homeland Security Presidential Directive (HSPD)-8: National Preparedness. Public papers of the Presidents of the United States, Book II, 1745-1750. US Government Publishing Office
Buzard, Richard M. 2023. Coastal hazard analyses and projections for arctic Alaska communities (Order No. 30631260). [Doctoral dissertations, University of Alaska Fairbanks]; ProQuest Dissertations Publishing (2849785977). http://uaf.idm.oclc.org/login?url=https://www.proquest.com/dissertations-theses/coastal-hazard-analyses-projections-arctic-alaska/docview/2849785977/se-2
Canny, Anna. November 14, 2023. Communities must adapt as climate change transforms Alaska, federal report says. KTOO. https://www.ktoo.org/2023/11/14/fifth-national-climate-assessment-alaska/
Carlo, Nikoosh. 2020. Arctic observing: Indigenous peoples’ history, perspectives, and approaches for partnership. University of Alaska Fairbanks, Center for Arctic Policy Studies. https://www.uaf.edu/caps/our-work/Carlo_Arctic-Observing_Indigenous-Peoples-History_CAPS_5MAR2020.pdf.
Chapin III, F. Stuart, Corrine N. Knapp, Todd J. Brinkman, Robin Bronen, and Patricia Cochran. 2016. Community-empowered adaptation for self-reliance. Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability, 19, 67-75. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cosust.2015.12.008
Chen, Joanne and Michael Greenberg. 2022. Cascading hazards and hazard mitigation plans: Preventing cascading events in the United States. Risk, Hazards & Crisis in Public Policy, 13(1), 48-63
Cochran, Patricia, Orville H. Huntington, Caleb Pungowiyi, Stanley Tom, F. Stuart Chapin III, Henry P. Huntington, Nancy G. Maynard, and Sarah F. Trainor. 2013. Indigenous frameworks for observing and responding to climate change in Alaska. Climatic Change, 120, 557–567. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10584-013-0735-2
Crowe, Sarah, Kathrin Cresswell, Ann Robertson, Guro A. Huby, Anthony A. Avery, and Aziz Sheikh. 2011. The case study approach. BMC Medical Research Methodology, 11(1), 100. http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2288/11/100
de Ruiter, Marlene C., Anaiis Couasnon, Marc J.C. van den Homberg, James E. Daniell, Joel C. Gill, and Philip J. Ward. 2020. Why we can no longer ignore consecutive disasters. Earth's Future, 8, e2019EF001425. https://doi.org/10.1029/2019EF001425
DoD News. September 27, 2022. Florida prepares for Ian as Alaska recovers from Merbok. US Department of Defense. https://www.defense.gov/News/News-Stories/Article/Article/3170662/florida-prepares-for-ian-as-alaska-recovers-from-merbok/
Ellam Yua, Julie Raymond-Yakoubian, Raychelle Aluaq Daniel, and Carolina Behe. 2022. A framework for co-production of knowledge in the context of Arctic research. Ecology and Society 27(1):34. https://doi.org/10.5751/ES-12960-270134
Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA). June 2016a. National disaster recovery framework 2nd ed. FEMA, US Department of Homeland Security. https://www.fema.gov/sites/default/files/2020-06/national_disaster_recovery_framework_2nd.pdf
Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA). June 2016b. National mitigation framework. FEMA, US Department of Homeland Security. https://www.fema.gov/sites/default/files/2020-04/National_Mitigation_Framework2nd_june2016.pdf
Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA). July 25, 2019a. 2019 National threat and hazard identification and risk assessment, Overview and methodology. FEMA, US Department of Homeland Security. https://www.fema.gov/emergency-managers/national-preparedness/goal/risk-capability-assessment
Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA). October 28, 2019b. National response framework. FEMA, US Department of Homeland Security. https://www.fema.gov/sites/default/files/2020-04/NRF_FINALApproved_2011028.pdf
Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA). 2020. Homeland Security exercise and evaluation program (HSEEP). FEMA, US Department of Homeland Security. https://www.fema.gov/sites/default/files/2020-04/Homeland-Security-Exercise-and-Evaluation-Program-Doctrine-2020-Revision-2-2-25.pdf
Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA). August 2022. National tribal strategy. FEMA, US Department of Homeland Security. https://www.fema.gov/sites/default/files/documents/fema_national-tribal-strategy_08182022.pdf
Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA). July 24, 2024. Over $100 million approved to help Alaska communities rebuild from Typhoon Merbok. FEMA, US Department of Homeland Security. fema.gov/press-release/20240712/over-100-million-approved-help-alaska-communities-rebuild-typhoon-merbok
Federal Highway Administration (FHWA). October 6, 2022. U.S. Department of Transportation providing Alaska $9 million in ‘Quick release’ emergency relief funding to repair storm and flood damage from Typhoon Merbok in western Alaska. US Department of Transportation, Washington, DC. https://highways.dot.gov/newsroom/us-department-transportation-providing-alaska-9-million-quick-release-emergency-relief
Graves, Kathleen, Rosellen Rosich, Melen McBride, George Charles, and James LaBelle. 2010. Health and health care of Alaska Native older adults. In V. S. Periyakoil (Eds.), eCampus Geriatrics. Stanford, CA. https://geriatrics.stanford.edu/wp-content/uploads/downloads/ethnomed/alaskan/downloads/alaska_native.pdf
Griffin, P. Joshua. April 26, 2023a. Arctic sea ice loss and fierce storms leave Kivalina’s volunteer Search and Rescue fighting to protect their island from climate disasters. The Conversation. https://theconversation.com/arctic-sea-ice-loss-and-fierce-storms-leave-kivalinas-volunteer-search-and-rescue-fighting-to-protect-their-island-from-climate-disasters-191315
Griffin, P. Joshua. April 28, 2023b. ‘We just can’t adapt this fast,’ Kivalina Search and Rescue fights to protect their island. Alaska Beacon. https://alaskabeacon.com/2023/04/28/we-just-cant-adapt-this-fast-kivalina-search-and-rescue-fights-to-protect-their-island/
Haecker, Diana. September 25, 2022. Mega-storm hits region, causing massive destruction. The Nome Nugget. http://www.nomenugget.net/news/mega-storm-hits-region-causing-massive-destruction
Hanaček, Ksenija, Markus Kröger, Anim Scheidel, Facundo Rojas, and Joan Martinez-Alier. 2022. On thin ice–The Arctic commodity extraction frontier and environmental conflicts. Ecological Economics, 191, 107247. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolecon.2021.107247
Harrison, Helena, Melanie Birks, Richard Franklin, and Jane Mills. 2017. Case Study Research: Foundations and Methodological Orientations. Forum Qualitative Sozialforschung Forum: Qualitative Social Research, 18(1). https://doi.org/10.17169/fqs-18.1.2655
Herrmann, Adelheid. 2024. Landscape of Tribal communities: Context for working in rural Alaska. Alaska Center for Climate Assessment and Policy. https://uaf-accap.org/document/landscape-of-tribal-communities-context-for-working-in-rural-alaska/
Homeland Security Today (HST). September 29, 2022. Coast Guard returns from Typhoon Merbok response in Arctic, Western Alaska. Government Technology and Services Coalition. https://www.hstoday.us/subject-matter-areas/maritime-security/coast-guard-returns-from-typhoon-merbok-response-in-arctic-western-alaska/
Horn, Diane P., Elizabeth M. Webster, and Erica A. Lee. November 12, 2021. INSIGHT: Climate change, slow-onset disasters, and the Federal Emergency Management Agency. Congressional Research Service (IN11696)
Horn-Muller, Ayurella. September 23, 2022. Alaskan tribal communities confront food insecurity after storm. Energy & Environment, Axios.com. https://www.axios.com/2022/09/23/alaskan-tribal-communities-storm
Hueffer, Karsten, Mary Ehrlander, Kathy Etz, and Arleigh Reynolds. 2019. One health in the circumpolar north. International Journal of Circumpolar Health, 78(1), 1607502. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/22423982.2019.1607502
Hughes, Zachariah. October 2, 2022. Storm repairs move ahead in western Alaska as freeze-up closes in. Anchorage Daily News. https://www.adn.com/alaska-news/rural-alaska/2022/10/01/storm-repairs-barrel-ahead-in-western-alaska-as-freeze-up-closes-in/
Inuit Circumpolar Council Alaska (ICCA). 2020. Food sovereignty and self-governance: Inuit role in managing Arctic marine resources. Inuit Circumpolar Council. https://iccalaska.org/wp-icc/wp-content/uploads/2020/09/FSSG-Report_-LR.pdf
Jojola, Ted. 2008. Indigenous Planning - An Emerging Context. Canadian Journal of Urban Research. 17(1), 37–47. http://www.jstor.org/stable/26193203
Kean, Thomas and Lee Hamilton. 2004. The 9/11 commission report: Final report of the national commission on terrorist attacks upon the United States (Vol. 1). Government Printing Office
Kelman, Ilan. 2018. Connecting theories of cascading disasters and disaster diplomacy. International journal of disaster risk reduction, 30, 172-179. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijdrr.2018.01.024
Korthuis, Vivian. October 17, 2022. Association of Village Council Presidents Typhoon Merbok recommendations: Testimony of Vivian Korthuis. Association of Village Council Presidents (AVCP)
Krupnik, Igor. 2000. Native perspectives on climate and sea ice changes. Impact of changes in sea ice and other environmental parameters in the Arctic, 25-39. Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC. https://www.mmc.gov/wp-content/uploads/seaicereport.pdf#page=36
Kvapil, Rachael. Summer 2023. Reworking western Alaska. Looking for long-term repair solutions following Typhoon Merbok. The Alaska Contractor, The Associated General Contractors of Alaska. Alaska Business Publishing. https://alaskacontractor.akbizmag.com/issue/summer-2023/reworking-western-alaska/
Latulippe, Nicole and Nicole Klenk. 2020. Making room and moving over: knowledge co-production, Indigenous knowledge sovereignty and the politics of global environmental change decision-making. Current opinion in environmental sustainability, 42, 7-14. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cosust.2019.10.010
Lezak, Stephen and Genevieve Rock. 2024. On Micropolitics: Climate adaptation and Indigenous governance in Western Alaska. Climatic Change, 177(9), 135. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10584-024-03769-4
Loewi, Peter. September 25, 2022a. Regional communities hammered by ex-Typhoon Merbok. The Nome Nugget. http://www.nomenugget.net/news/regional-communities-hammered-ex-typhoon-merbok
Loewi, Peter. November 23, 2022b. The complicated road to recovery after Merbok. The Nome Nugget. http://www.nomenugget.com/news/complicated-road-recovery-after-merbok
Mittal, Anu. December 2003. Alaska native villages: Most are affected by flooding and erosion, but few qualify for Federal assistance, GAO-04-142. US Government Accounting Office (GAO). https://www.gao.gov/products/gao-04-142
Mittal, Anu. June 2009. Alaska native villages: Limited progress has been made on relocating villages threatened by flooding and erosion, GAO-09-551. US Government Accounting Office (GAO). https://www.gao.gov/products/gao-09-551
Mizrahi, Shiomo. 2020. Cascading disasters, information cascades and continuous time models of domino effects. International Journal of Disaster Risk Reduction, 49, 101672. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijdrr.2020.101672
Mohajan, Haradhan K. 2020. Quantitative research: A successful investigation in natural and social sciences. Journal of Economic Development, Environment and People, 9(4), 50-79
Monet, Jenni. September 29, 2022. Even before Merbok, native villages were in harm’s way. The Nome Nugget. http://www.nomenugget.com/news/even-merbok-native-villages-were-harm’s-way
Noongwook, George. 2000. Native observations of local climate changes around St. Lawrence Island. Impact of changes in sea ice and other environmental parameters in the Arctic, 30-34. Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC. https://www.mmc.gov/wp-content/uploads/seaicereport.pdf#page=31
Noor, Khairul B.M. 2008. Case study: A strategic research methodology. American journal of applied sciences, 5(11), 1602-1604, https://doi.org/10.3844/ajassp.2008.1602.1604
O’Malley, Julia. October 4, 2022. Climate change comes for the freezers, a key tool for Alaska natives. New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2022/10/04/dining/climate-change-freezers-alaska-natives.html
Operation Merbok Response. 2022. Operation Merbok Response. Defense Visual Information Distribution Service, U.S. Department of Defense, Washington, DC. https://www.dvidshub.net/feature/operationmerbokresponse
Pennington, John. 2023. Sovereign disasters: How Alaska’s Tribes participate in government-to-government relations in a post-disaster environment (Publication No. 30417849). [Doctoral dissertation] University of Alaska Fairbanks
Pennington, John and Daryl Schaffer. 2025. Conflict by design: Stafford Act incompatibility with Alaska tribal sovereignty. Journal of Emergency Management. (Mar/Apr 2005)211-227, DOI:10.5055/jem.0922
Pescaroli, Gianluca and David Alexander. 2015. A definition of cascading disasters and cascading effects: Going beyond the “toppling dominos” metaphor. Planet@ risk, 3(1), 58-67, Davos: Global Risk Forum GRF Davos
Priya, Arya. 2021. Case study methodology of qualitative research: Key attributes and navigating the conundrums in its application. Sociological Bulletin, 70(1), 94-110. https://doi.org/10.1177/0038022920970318
Ranghieri, Federica and Mikio Ishiwatari. 2013. Learning from Megadisasters: Lessons from the Great East Japan Earthquake. The World Bank. DOI: 10.1596/978-1-4648-0153-2
Ristroph, E. Barrett. 2022. How Alaska Native Corporations can better support Alaska native villages. Am. Indian LJ, 10, 68, https://digitalcommons.law.seattleu.edu/ailj/vol10/iss1/5
Robert T. Stafford Act of 1988, 42 U.S.C. ch 68 et seq. PL 100-707, 102 Stat. 4689 (1988)
Rosen, Yereth. September 29, 2022. Typhoon Merbok spotlights Alaska’s need for science and climate-resilient infrastructure. Alaska Public Media. https://alaskapublic.org/2022/09/29/typhoon-merbok-spotlights-alaskas-need-for-science-and-climate-resilient-infrastructure/
Ruscio, Bruce A., Michael Brubaker, Joshua Glasser, Will Hueston, and Thomas W. Hennessy. 2015. One Health–a strategy for resilience in a changing arctic. International journal of circumpolar health, 74(1), 27913. DOI: 10.3402/ijch.v74.27913
Salvano-Dunn, Dana. 2023. FEMA’s outreach and recovery assistance to tribes and tribal communities in Alaska complaint no. 005539-23-FEMA. Office for Civil Rights and Civil Liberties, U.S. Department of Homeland Security, Washington, DC
Schaffer, Daryl. 2021. The light switch fallacy: Emergency management and recovery in an on-demand world. Journal of Emergency Management, Vol 19, No 3. (2021, May/June). https://doi.org/10.5055/jem.0545
Schaffer, Daryl. 2025. Post-typhoon Merbok impact on geographically isolated western Alaska and sustainable recovery process for vulnerable populations (Publication No. 31934852). [Doctoral dissertation] University of Alaska Fairbanks
Schaffer, Daryl and Pennington, John. November 1, 2023. Sustainable post-storm mitigation efforts in underserved communities [Conference session]. 16th Homeland Defense and Security Education Summit, Naval Postgraduate School, Monterey, CA
Schwab, James. 2010. Hazard Mitigation: Integrating best practices into planning. American Planning Association, Planning Advisory Services Report No. 560. Federal Emergency Management Agency
Schwing, Emily. September 19, 2022. In recovery after storm, Alaska faces hard days ahead. New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2022/09/19/us/alaska-recovery-typhoon-merbok.html
Schwing, Emily. January 9, 2023. FEMA sent ‘unintelligible’ disaster relief information to Alaska Native people after Typhoon Merbok. KTOO. https://www.ktoo.org/2023/01/09/fema-sent-unintelligible-disaster-relief-information-to-alaska-native-people-after-typhoon-merbok/
Schwing, Emily. January 22, 2024. FEMA is making sweeping changes, but they’ve come too late for Typhoon Merbok survivors. KYUK. https://www.kyuk.org/public-safety/2024-01-22/fema-is-making-sweeping-changes-but-theyve-come-too-late-for-typhoon-merbok-survivors
Shapiro, Zach. December 12, 2022. Lessons from the Typhoon Merbok response in Alaska. MyCG. U.S. Coast Guard. https://www.mycg.uscg.mil/News/Article/3236136/lessons-from-the-typhoon-merbok-response-in-alaska/
Shen, Suwan, and E. Barrett Ristroph. 2020. The relationship between climate vulnerability and disaster declarations: a case study of flood-prone indigenous communities in Alaska. Natural Hazards Review, 21(1), 05019004. DOI: 10.1061/(ASCE)NH.1527-6996.0000341
Sitnasuak Native Corporation (SNC). September 22, 2022. Typhoon Merbok: Disaster Recovery Response. Sitnasuak Native Corporation, Nome, AK. https://snc.org/news/typhoon-merbok/
Sobelman, Sarah S. March 1985. The economics of wild resource use in Shishmaref, Alaska. Alaska Department of Fish and Game, Division of Subsistence Technical Report (No. 112). AK Department of Fish and Game
Su, Zhaopin, Guofu Zhang, Yang Liu, Feng Yue, and Jianguo Jiang. 2016. Multiple emergency resource allocation for concurrent incidents in natural disasters. International Journal of Disaster Risk Reduction, 17, 199-212
Telford, Taylor. September 18, 2022. Western Alaska confronts damage after historic storm. Washington Post. https://www.washingtonpost.com/business/2022/09/18/alaska-storm-typhoon-merbok/
Thoman, Rick. September 19, 2022. Typhoon Merbok, fueled by unusually warm Pacific Ocean, pounded Alaska’s vulnerable coastal communities at a critical time. The Conversation. https://theconversation.com/typhoon-merbok-fueled-by-unusually-warm-pacific-ocean-pounded-alaskas-vulnerable-coastal-communities-at-a-critical-time-190898
Thoman, Rick L., Twila A. Moon, and Matthew L. Druckenmiller. 2023. Arctic Report Card 2023. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, U.S. Department of Commerce, Washington, DC. https://doi.org/10.25923/5vfa-k694
Toomey, Diane. July 13, 2016. Alaska villages stuck in limbo. Yale Environment 360. https://deeply.thenewhumanitarian.org/arctic/articles/2016/07/13/alaskan-villages-stuck-in-limbo.
Trainor, Sarah F., F. Stuart Chapin III, Henry P. Huntington, David C. Natcher, and Gary Kofinas. 2007. Arctic climate impacts: Environmental injustice in Canada and the United States. Local Environment, 12:6, 627-643. DOI: 10.1080/13549830701657414
United States Coast Guard (USCG). September 28, 2022. Photo release: Coast Guard returns from Typhoon Merbok response in Arctic, Western Alaska. US Department of Homeland Security, Washington, DC. https://content.govdelivery.com/accounts/USDHSCG/bulletins/32f7f84
United States Global Change Research Program (USGCRP). 2023. Fifth National Climate Assessment. Crimmins, A.R., Avery, C.W., Easterling, D.R., Kunkel, K.E., Stewart, B.C., and Maycock, T.K, Eds. US Global Research Program, Washington, DC, USA. https://doi.org/10.7930/NCA5.2023
Wisner, Ben, Jean-Christophe Gaillard, and Ilan Kelman. 2012. Handbook of hazards and disaster risk reduction. Routledge
York, Abigail, Andrey N. Petrov, Victoria N. Sharakhmatova, Tatiana Degai, Liza Mack, Vera Metcalf, Rodion Sulyandziga, Sean Asikluk Topkok, and Eduard Zdor. 2024. 4: Arctic communities in the face of change: Resilience, governance, and well-being. In North Pacific Perspectives On The Arctic. Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar Publishing. https//doi.org/10.4337/9781035344956.00010
Downloads
Published
How to Cite
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2025 Daryl Schaffer

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
Authors retain copyright and grant the journal right of first publication with the work simultaneously licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution (CC-BY) 4.0 License that allows others to share the work with an acknowledgment of the work's authorship and initial publication in this journal.